New insights into early medieval Islamic cuisine: Organic residue analysis of pottery from rural and urban Sicily.

Sicily, during the 9th-12th century AD, thrived politically, economically, and culturally under Islamic political rule and the capital of Palermo stood as a cultural and political centre in the Mediterranean Islamic world. However, to what extent the lifeways of the people that experienced these regimes were impacted during this time is not well understood, particularly those from lesser studied rural contexts. This paper presents the first organic residue analysis of 134 cooking pots and other domestic containers dating to the 9th -12th century in order to gain new insights into the culinary practices during this significant period. Ceramics from three sites in the urban capital of Palermo and from the rural town of Casale San Pietro were analysed and compared. The multi-faceted organic residue analysis identified a range of commodities including animal products, vegetables, beeswax, pine and fruit products in the ceramics, with a complex mixing of resources observed in many cases, across all four sites and ceramic forms. Alongside the identification of commodities and how they were combined, new light has been shed on the patterning of resource use between these sites. The identification of dairy products in calcite wares from the rural site of Casale San Pietro and the absence of dairy in ceramics from the urban centre of Palermo presents interesting questions regarding the role of rural sites in food consumption and production in Islamic Sicily. This is the first time organic residue analysis of ceramics has been used to explore foodways in a medieval multi-faith society and offers new pathways to the understanding of pottery use and resources that were prepared, consumed and combined, reflecting cuisine in different socio-economic environments within the pluralistic population of medieval Sicily.

The Major Source of Antioxidants Intake From Typical Diet Among Rural Farmers in North-eastern Japan in the 1990s.

BACKGROUND: Previous Japanese studies have led to the erroneous conclusion of antioxidant capacity (AOC) intakes of the overall Japanese diet due to limitations in the number and types of food measured, especially in rice and seafood intake. The aims of the study were to construct an AOC database of foods representative of the typical Japanese diet and to clarify the high contributors to AOC intake from the overall diet of the Japanese population. METHODS: Commonly consumed foods were estimated using 3-day dietary records (DRs) over the four seasons among 55 men and 58 women in Japan. To generate an AOC database suitable for the typical Japanese diet, hydrophilic (H-)/lipophilic (L-) oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) values of foods in each food group were measured via validated methods using the food intake rankings. Subsequently, we estimated the AOC intake and the AOC characteristics of a typical Japanese diet. RESULTS: Of 989 food items consumed by the participants, 189 food items were measured, which covered 78.8% of the total food intake. The most commonly consumed types of antioxidant-containing food were tea, soybean products, coffee, and rice according to H-ORAC, and soybean products, fish and shellfish, vegetables, and algae according to L-ORAC. CONCLUSIONS: The characteristics of high AOC intake in rice and seafood more appropriately reflected the Japanese-style diet. Further studies are expected to clarify the association between food-derived AOC and its role in preventing or ameliorating lifestyle-related diseases.

Coming of age in the Netherlands: An osteological assessment of puberty in a rural Dutch post-medieval community.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study is to apply pubertal stage estimation methods to a sample from a rural community: the post-medieval Dutch skeletal collection from Middenbeemster. Puberty is a key developmental period involving transition to physical adulthood with broad societal relevance through its impact on fertility, morbidity, and mortality. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Individuals (n = 55), including 27 of known sex and age-at-death, between the ages of 8 and 25 years were assessed for six skeletal markers indicative of pubertal growth spurt. Recent novel osteoarchaeological methods from Shapland and Lewis are used to reconstruct the timing and duration of pubertal stages. RESULTS: Pubertal acceleration occurred earlier in females (10.38 years, n = 8) than males (13.30 years, n = 6), whereas maturation occurred later in males (21.36 years, n = 11) than females (19.30 years, n = 5). Onset appears earlier and completion later compared to other archaeological skeletal samples with osteoarchaeological evidence of puberty. Age shortly after menarche was reconstructed at 20.45 years, substantially later than historic records and bioarchaeological research reports suggest. CONCLUSION: This early onset and late completion caused a "stretch" of the overall duration of puberty compared to other collections, especially of the last three stages. This prolonged development is reflected in historically known social expectations for the Netherlands, for example, that marriage and children should not occur before about 22-23 years of age. Increasing the range of past peoples with puberty stage reconstruction will permit more insightful interpretations of the biological and cultural patterns of this important life stage.

Transtorno mental comum e uso abusivo do álcool entre agricultores de Caicó-RN / Common mental disorder and alcohol abuse among farmers in Caicó-RN

A respeito dos agricultores e das populações rurais, a dificuldade de acesso aos serviços de saúde e o maior custo dos tratamentos psiquiátricos contribuem para que sejam negligenciados alguns cuidados relacionados à saúde mental. Além disso, características estressoras do ambiente laboral, como as longas distâncias, o isolamento, a dificuldade em desenvolver outra atividade laboral, o declínio da economia, a renda irregular e a exposição a pesticidas refletem no desenvolvimento de transtornos. Buscou-se identificar a prevalência e os fatores associados ao Transtorno Mental Comum e ao uso abusivo do álcool entre agricultores residentes em um município de médio porte no nordeste do Brasil, durante o ano de 2019 e 2020. Entrevistadoras treinadas aplicaram o questionário padronizado em 450 participantes. Investigaram-se características sociodemográficas, de saúde, renda e trabalho. O rastreamento do Transtorno Mental Comum (TMC) foi realizado mediante a utilização do questionário SRQ-20 (SelfReporting Questionaire, sendo o ponto de corte ≥7 para mulheres e ≥5 para homens. O rastreamento do uso abusivo do álcool foi realizado mediante a utilização do questionário CAGE (Cut down, Annoyed by criticism, Guilty e Eye-opener), sendo o ponto de corte ≥ 2. Foi aplicada a Regressão de Poisson com estimação robusta para verificar as razões de prevalências (RP) na análise bivariada e multivariada. A prevalência do TMC entre agricultores foi de 55,1% (IC95% 50,4-59,6). As variáveis que permaneceram significativas e associadas aos TMC foram: ser do sexo masculino (RP= 1,7), ter mais de 60 anos (RP=0,5), ter autoavaliação de saúde ruim ou muito ruim (RP=1,4), ter realizado tratamento anterior para saúde mental (RP=1,2), fazer uso abusivo do álcool (RP=1,2) e ter tido perda de produção (RP=1,3). A prevalência do uso abusivo do álcool entre agricultores foi de 32% (IC95% 27,8-36,4). Fatores como ser do sexo masculino, ter diagnóstico de transtorno mental na família, ser tabagista e usar drogas estiveram associados à maior prevalência do desfecho. Ter 60 anos ou mais esteve associado à menor prevalência do uso abusivo do álcool. Esses resultados indicam a necessidade de suporte social a este grupo de trabalhadores no contexto da saúde ocupacional e apontam que tanto o TMC quanto o uso abusivo de álcool estão associados à fatores individuais e do contexto de vida e trabalho dos agricultores, o que demonstra a importância do suporte social, econômico e dos serviços de saúde a este grupo de trabalhadores (AU).

With regard to farmers and rural populations, the difficulty in accessing health services and the higher cost of psychiatric treatments contribute to the neglect of some care related to mental health. In addition, stressful characteristics of the work environment, such as long distances, isolation, difficulty in developing other work activities, economic decline, irregular income and exposure to pesticides reflect on the development of disorders. We sought to identify the prevalence and factors associated with Common Mental Disorder and alcohol abuse among farmers living in a medium-sized municipality in northeastern Brazil, during 2019 and 2020. Trained interviewers applied the standardized questionnaire to 450 participants. Sociodemographic, health, income and work characteristics were investigated. Screening for Common Mental Disorder (CMD) was carried out using the SRQ-20 questionnaire (SelfReporting Questionaire, with a cutoff point ≥7 for women and ≥5 for men. the use of the CAGE questionnaire (Cut down, Annoyed by criticism, Guilty and Eye-opener), with the cutoff point ≥ 2. Poisson Regression with robust estimation was applied to verify the prevalence ratios (PR) in the bivariate and multivariate analysis. The prevalence of CMD among farmers was 55.1% (95%CI 50.4-59.6.) The variables that remained significant and associated with CMD were: being male (PR=1.7), having over 60 years old (PR=0.5), having poor or very poor self-rated health (PR=1.4), having undergone previous treatment for mental health (PR=1.2), having abused alcohol (PR =1.2) and having had loss of production (PR=1.3). The prevalence of alcohol abuse among farmers was 32% (95%CI 27.8- 36.4). Factors such as being male, having a diagnosis of mental disorder in the family, being a smoker and using drugs were associated with a higher prevalence of the outcome. Being 60 years old or more was associated with a lower prevalence of alcohol abuse. These results indicate the need for social support to this group of workers in the context of occupational health and point out that both CMD and alcohol abuse are associated with individual factors and the context of life and work of farmers, which demonstrates the importance social, economic and health services support to this group of workers (AU).

Safe Villages during the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic in Spain and Portugal.

The 1918-1919 influenza pandemic had a significantly different impact on mortality rates in Spanish and Portuguese provinces and cities. In this study, several small villages have been identified which were not affected at all by the Spanish influenza pandemic. These all shared a number of features in common: their villages were very small, comprising only a few hundred inhabitants; they were located in mountainous regions, with very poor transport infrastructure; and they were self-sufficient and capable of fulfilling their basic alimentary needs. Their inhabitants were conscious of the problem and acted together, effectively isolating themselves from surrounding villages. Since these villagers managed to avoid direct contact with ill people from other municipalities, the flu was not transmitted and the pandemic did not arise in their villages. In this paper, it is proposed that the human habitability spaces that meet these characteristics, I call them "Safe Villages" or "Shelter Village". Knowledge of the circumstances in which the 1918-1919 flu pandemic developed and of the means employed to resist it can help us to take relevant measures when faced with future pandemics.

There and back again: A zooarchaeological perspective on Early and Middle Bronze Age urbanism in the southern Levant.

Multiple arguments for or against the presence of 'urban' settlements in the Early Bronze Age of the southern Levant have identified the need to compare these settlements against their rural hinterlands through multiple lines of evidence. This meta-analysis of zooarchaeological data from the region compares and identifies patterns of animal production, provisioning and consumption between the supposed "urban" and rural sites of the southern Levant from the Early Bronze (EB) against the (more widely recognised urban) Middle Bronze (MB) Ages. It also identifies distinct and regionally specific patterns in animal production and consumption that can be detected between urban and rural sites of the southern Levant. The taxonomic and age profiles from EB Ia and Ib sites do not demonstrate any urban versus rural differentiation patterning, even though fortifications appear in the EB Ib. Beginning in the EB II and clearly visible in the EB III, there is differentiation between rural and urban sites in the taxonomic and age proportions. Differentiation is repeated in the MB II. The clear differentiation between "urban" and rural zooarchaeological assemblages from the EB II-III and MB suggest that rural sites are provisioning the larger fortified settlements. This pattern indicates that these sites are indeed urban in nature, and these societies are organized at the state-level. From the EB II onwards, there is a clear bias in the large centres towards the consumption of cattle and of subadult sheep and goats with a corresponding bias in smaller rural sites towards the consumption of adult sheep and goats and a reduced presence of cattle. After the emergence of this differential pattern, it disappears with the decline in social complexity at the end of the Early Bronze Age, only to come 'back again' with the re-emergence of urban settlement systems in the Middle Bronze Age.

Community Health in Rural America During the Mid-20th Century.

The Council on Rural Health (1945-1975) of the American Medical Association (AMA) collaborated with domestic health care organizations in the mid-20th century to improve access to health care in rural areas. This council promoted health and farm safety education, public health measures, insurance plans, and construction of health facilities. It also lobbied state and county medical societies to form rural health committees. AMA archive materials document these activities and demonstrate physicians' involvement and investment in the communities they served.

Sex differences in the patterning of age-related bone loss in the human hallucal metatarsal in rural and urban populations.

OBJECTIVES: Age-degenerative features of the metatarsals are poorly known despite the importance of metatarsal bone properties for investigating mobility patterns. We assessed the role of habitual activity in shaping the patterning and magnitude of sexual dimorphism in age-related bone loss in the hallucal metatarsal. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cross-sections were extracted at midshaft from micro-computed tomography scan models of individuals from medieval rural (Abingdon Vineyard) and early industrial urban (Spitalfields) settings (n = 71). A suite of cross-sectional geometry dimensions and biomechanical properties were compared between populations. RESULTS: The rural group display generally stronger and larger metatarsals that show a greater capacity to resist torsion and that have comparatively greater bending strength along the medio-lateral plane. Men in both groups show greater values of cortical area than women, but only in the urban group do men show lower magnitudes of age-related decline compared to females. Women in rural and urban populations show different patterns of age-related decline in bone mass, particularly old women in the urban group show a marked decline in cortical area that is absent for women in the rural group. DISCUSSION: Lifetime exposure to hard, physical activity in an agricultural setting has contributed to the attainment of greater bone mass and stronger bones in young adults. Furthermore, over the life-course, less of this greater amount of bone is lost, such that sustained activity levels may have acted to buffer against age-related decline, and this is most pronounced for women, who are expected to experience greater bone loss later in life than men.

A submerged 7000-year-old village and seawall demonstrate earliest known coastal defence against sea-level rise.

We report the results of underwater archaeological investigations at the submerged Neolithic settlement of Tel Hreiz (7500 - 7000 BP), off the Carmel coast of Israel. The underwater archaeological site has yielded well-preserved architectural, artefactual, faunal and human remains. We examine and discuss the notable recent discovery of a linear, boulder-built feature >100m long, located seaward of the settlement. Based on archaeological context, mode of construction and radiometric dating, we demonstrate the feature was contemporary with the inundated Neolithic settlement and conclude that it served as a seawall, built to protect the village against Mediterranean Sea-level rise. The seawall is unique for the period and is the oldest known coastal defence worldwide. Its length, use of large non-local boulders and specific arrangement in the landscape reflect the extensive effort invested by the Neolithic villagers in its conception, organisation and construction. However, this distinct social action and display of resilience proved a temporary solution and ultimately the village was inundated and abandoned.

The influence of the lunar cycle on spontaneous deliveries in historical rural environments.

BACKGROUND: Many societies and their medical practitioners throughout the world have historically linked lunar phases to the frequency of births. During more recent decades, academics have discussed this alleged relationship using modern data, obtaining differing results. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to analyse the relationship between the phases of the moon and the frequency of deliveries in a rural historical context without electricity, and among women of low nutritional status. These characteristics are similar to some current rural areas in certain developing countries. The exceptionality of this case will allow us to test several of the existing theories on how the moon could influence births, particularly those related to lunar light. We will also analyse nulliparous and multiparous differences over the very long term. STUDY DESIGN: This study is a retrospective cohort analysis. In total, 23,689 births have been considered for 1484 lunar cycles between 1810 and 1929. Birth registers have been obtained from the Catholic parish archives of 10 rural Spanish agrarian villages. All the deliveries analysed were natural, without any medical follow-up, within the home and with little medical assistance. RESULTS: Using simple descriptive statistical techniques, we can conclude that there is no pattern with which to link lunar phases with the frequency of births. We can also conclude that neither electricity nor the rural environment affects this alleged relationship; neither have we found any relationship related to either the nulliparous or the multiparous and lunar phases. CONCLUSION: The analysis of a 120-year period has shown that there is no predictable influence of the lunar phases on the frequency of births. The myth of such a lunar influence can claim no scientific evidence from a historical perspective. Neither the arrival of the electric light nor the lower number of deliveries per woman have modified birth patterns. Deliveries by rural women of low nutritional status are not linked to the phases of the moon, and consequently the medical services in developing countries should disregard this belief; they do not need to take account of the phases of the moon with respect to their daily organisation.

A tale of two cities: A comparison of urban and rural trauma in Medieval Denmark.

OBJECTIVE: This study explores the differences in frequency and type of trauma found in two Medieval cemeteries in Denmark, as well as the cultural and community implications of those differences. MATERIALS: We examined 235 skeletons from the cemetery at Tjærby (rural) and 170 skeletons from the cemetery at Randers (urban) for trauma from the Medieval period in Denmark, 1050 to 1536 CE. METHODS: Trauma was assessed through macroscopic examination and odds ratio and relative risk assessments were run to assess the difference in trauma. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the presence of trauma between the rural and urban cemeteries or between males and females. There were some significant differences in relative risk for trauma between the two cemeteries. CONCLUSIONS: The division and variation in trauma between the two cemeteries is most likely related to differences in economy and occupation. SIGNIFICANCE: There are relatively few studies that examine the difference in inherent risk of trauma between rural and urban Medieval communities, especially in Denmark. This research also adds to the growing body of literature in paleopathology that uses epidemiology to explore the parallels between patterns of trauma and community lifeways. LIMITATIONS: The cemeteries are approximately 5 km distance from each other so similarities in the sample could be a result of location. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: A wider sample of Medieval cemeteries in Denmark needs be added to this analysis to provide a more complete picture of trauma patterns during this time period.

[Biological Standards of Living in Rural Catalonia over the Long Run: A Comparison with Urban Areas (1840-1960)]. / Niveles de vida biológicos en la Cataluña rural en el largo plazo: una comparación con las áreas urbanas (1840-1960).

OBJECTIVE: to assess the long-term evolution of biological living standards in rural Catalonia and to compare it with the corresponding figures in urban areas. METHODS: using data from military records of conscripts from six towns in western Catalonia, we construct an annual height series. Height is standardised at the age of 21 years. We also construct a body mass index (BMI) for conscripts born in 1891 and 1934-39. The annual height series for western Catalonia is systematically compared to the series for Reus, Catalonia's second largest city during the second half of the 19th century. RESULTS: comparing the cohorts born in the periods 1840-49 and 1951-60, we find that height increased by 5.7 centimetres over this period. However, the increase was not distributed equally over time. In the second half of the 19th century, rural heights stagnated over the long run and declined relative to urban heights. In the cohorts born in the decades between 1910 and 1950, rural heights rose by more than 5 centimetres, and converged with those of Reus. CONCLUSION: we provide new evidence for the current debate on the rural-urban height gap. Between the 1840s and the 1950s, heights in rural western Catalonia grew at rates similar to those recorded in certain urban areas, but growth rates differed depending on the period of analysis. This study underlines the importance of adopting long-term perspectives, and stresses that rural-urban height differences tend to be time-and space-specific.

Objetivo: analizar la evolución en el largo plazo del nivel de vida biológico en la Cataluña rural y explorar hasta qué punto esta fue diferente a la de las zonas urbanas. Métodos: utilizamos datos de los registros militares de seis localidades rurales del poniente catalán con los que construimos una serie anual de estatura estandarizada a la edad de 21 años con las cohortes nacidas entre 1840 y 1960. También elaboramos un IMC para los reclutas nacidos en 1891 y 1934-1939. La serie rural de estatura se compara sistemáticamente con la de Reus, el segundo mayor centro urbano catalán de la segunda mitad del siglo xix. Resultados: los datos muestran que la estatura aumentó 5,7 centímetros entre las cohortes nacidas entre 1840-1849 y 1951-1960, aunque desigualmente distribuidos a lo largo del tiempo. En la segunda mitad del siglo xix hubo estancamiento en el largo plazo y divergencia con las estaturas urbanas. Entre 1910 y 1950 la talla rural mejoró en más de 5 centímetros y terminó convergiendo con la de Reus. Conclusión: se aporta nueva evidencia al debate sobre la brecha rural-urbana en el nivel de vida biológico. En el periodo analizado, las tasas de crecimiento de la estatura fueron parecidas en ambos ámbitos, aunque con diferencias según el periodo de análisis. Este estudio subraya la importancia de adoptar perspectivas de largo plazo y señala que las diferencias de estatura rural-urbana tienden a ser específicas de tiempo y espacio.

Oral health status in historic population: Macroscopic and metagenomic evidence.

Recent developments in High-Throughput DNA sequencing (HTS) technologies and ancient DNA (aDNA) research have opened access to the characterization of the microbial communities within past populations. Most studies have, however, relied on the analysis of dental calculus as one particular material type particularly prone to the molecular preservation of ancient microbial biofilms and potential of entire teeth for microbial characterization, both of healthy communities and pathogens in ancient individuals, remains overlooked. In this study, we used shotgun sequencing to characterize the bacterial composition from historical subjects showing macroscopic evidence of oral pathologies. We first carried out a macroscopic analysis aimed at identifying carious or periodontal diseases in subjects belonging to a French rural population of the 18th century AD. We next examined radiographically six subjects showing specific, characteristic dental pathologies and applied HTS shotgun sequencing to characterize the microbial communities present in and on the dental material. The presence of Streptococcus mutans and also Rothia dentocariosa, Actinomyces viscosus, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella forsythia, Pseudoramibacter alactolyticus, Olsenella uli and Parvimonas micra was confirmed through the presence of typical signatures of post-mortem DNA damage at an average depth-of-coverage ranging from 0.5 to 7X, with a minimum of 35% (from 35 to 93%) of the positions in the genome covered at least once. Each sampled tooth showed a specific bacterial signature associated with carious or periodontal pathologies. This work demonstrates that from a healthy independent tooth, without visible macroscopic pathology, we can identify a signature of specific pathogens and deduce the oral health status of an individual.

Medical provision and urban-rural differences in maternal mortality in late nineteenth century Scotland.

This paper examines the effect of variable reporting and coding practices on the measurement of maternal mortality in urban and rural Scotland, 1861-1901, using recorded causes of death and women who died within six weeks of childbirth. This setting provides data (n = 604 maternal deaths) to compare maternal mortality identified by cause of death with maternal mortality identified by record linkage and to contrast urban and rural settings with different certification practices. We find that underreporting was most significant for indirect causes, and that indirect causes accounted for a high proportion of maternal mortality where the infectious disease load was high. However, distinguishing between indirect and direct maternal mortality can be problematic even where cause of death reporting appears accurate. Paradoxically, underreporting of maternal deaths was higher in urban areas where deaths were routinely certified by doctors, and we argue that where there are significant differences in medical provision and reported deaths, differences in maternal mortality may reflect certification practices as much as true differences. Better health services might therefore give the impression that maternal mortality was lower than it actually was. We end with reflections on the interpretation of maternal mortality statistics and implications for the concept of the obstetric transition.

The Rise of the Current Mortality Pattern of the United States, 1890-1930.

This article examines how the epidemiologic transition and the reduction of the urban mortality penalty gave rise to the current mortality regime of the United States and demonstrates how the 1918 influenza pandemic signaled its advent. This article approaches those issues through the analysis of urban-rural mortality differentials from 1890 to 1930. Until 1910, infectious diseases dwarfed degenerative diseases in leading causes of death, and generally, the more urban the location was, the higher infectious disease and overall death rates were-a direct relationship. But by 1930, degenerative diseases had eclipsed infectious diseases, and infectious disease mortality had ceased to differ between cities and rural areas. The 1918 influenza pandemic broke out toward the end of these changes, and the larger the city was, the lower influenza and overall death rates were in that year-an inverse relationship. Such gradations characterized a new mortality regime emerging in the late 1910s and foreshadowed urban-rural mortality differentials in 1930 among persons aged 45 years or older, the group whose high rates of degenerative disease death would symbolize that regime. Thus, intertwined changes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries-a shift in leading causes of death from infectious diseases to degenerative diseases and a concomitant shift from a direct relationship to an inverse relationship between urban environment and mortality-produced the current mortality regime of the United States.

Osteochondritis Dissecans of skeletal elements of the foot in a 19th century rural farming community from The Netherlands.

Osteochondritis Dissecans (OD) is a pathological condition of the subchondral bone and surrounding cartilage of synovial joints, associated with strenuous activity and/or trauma. Reports of OD in archaeological skeletal remains are few and the majority demonstrate low OD prevalence (<1%). A predominantly 19th century skeletal sample from Middenbeemster, the Netherlands, was assessed for OD. The sample included adult individuals of both sexes. There were no definitive OD lesions in non-pedal elements, yet 12.9% of individuals suffered from pedal OD. Few archaeological and clinical reports specify the prevalence of pedal OD. According to the few that do, the Middenbeemster pedal OD prevalence is distinctly high. Several factors could have contributed to this. First, the rural Beemster community was centered around cattle farming, requiring extensive outside work and animal maintenance; thus, increasing the chances of acute/repetitive trauma in the foot. Second, the footwear worn during that period in the Netherlands was the wooden clog. It is suggested that the hard and inflexible clog, which is poor at absorbing shock and limits the movement of the foot, could have resulted in repetitive microtrauma. These two factors combined may have caused a high frequency of OD.

"Bunanje": XX Century Abuse of Atropa Belladonna Halucinogenic Berries in Continental Croatia.

BACKGROUND: Atropa belladonna (Engl. deadly nightshade, Cro. velebilje, bunika) is a plant containing pharmacologically active, potentially toxic alkaloids: atropine, hyocyamine and scopolamine. The risk of poisoning in children is important because of possible confusion of black/dark blue belladonna fruit berries with other edible berries. There are many reports in literature of accidental intoxication but no report on traditional intentional usage to achieve hallucinogenic effects. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Here we report purposeful ingestion of Atropa belladonna berries for hallucinatory effects among adolescents in Bjelovar region in north part of Croatia. This has been happening among children/adolescents while they were grazing animals. We visited a dozen villages in the region and spoke to the oldest mostly to the elderly residents. RESULTS: The existence of such abuse of Atropa belladonna berries in the first part of XX century was confirmed by eight narrators from five distinct places in the region. Interestingly this type of behavior had a specific name "bunanje", unknown in Croatian language, but clearly associated with local plant name bun or bunika. According to informants consumers of berries would develop delirium or hallucinations associated behavior, incoherent and meaningless speech. However nobody remembers any severe case of poisoning. At the regional hospital in Bjelovar in the Pediatric department, there is no record of poisoning with Atropa belladonna. To our knowledge this is the first report of intentional consumption of belladonna berries to achieve the hallucinogenic effect. CONCLUSIONS: The fact that the custom was observed in five distinct spots and it had its specific name "bunanje" suggest that those are not isolated random events but the type of practices; seasonal abuse of hallucinogenic berries of Atropa belladonna, among rural adolescents in the first part of XX century.